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Conscience - Wikipedia

weil who fought for the french resistance (the maquis) argued in her final book the need for roots: prelude to a declaration of duties towards mankind that for society to become more just and protective of liberty, obligations should take precedence over rights in moral and political philosophy and a spiritual awakening should occur in the conscience of most citizens, so that social obligations are viewed as fundamentally having a transcendent origin and a beneficent impact on human character when fulfilled.[101] a similar idealist notion was expressed in the writings of joseph butler who argued that conscience is god-given, should always be obeyed, is intuitive, and should be considered the "constitutional monarch" and the "universal moral faculty": "conscience does not only offer itself to show us the way we should walk in, but it likewise carries its own authority with it. our morality depends on it: how could anyone be expected to follow the golden rule without the capacity to mentally trade places with a fellow human being? essay concerning human understanding, chapter xxvii: "of identity and diversity". "the origin of the moral sense" in p singer (ed). develops a theory about hamlet's moral agony relating to a conflict between "traditional" and "critical" conscience: "the conventional moral ideas of his time, which he shared with the ghost, told him plainly that he ought to avenge his father; but a deeper conscience in him, which was in advance of his time, contended with these explicit conventional ideas. we rely more on what we feel than what we think when solving moral dilemmas. the economic and political spheres are highly subversive of some. darwin suggested that "any animal whatever, endowed with well-marked social instincts, the parental and filial affections being here included, would inevitably acquire a moral sense or conscience, as soon as its intellectual powers had become as well, or as nearly as well developed, as in man. conscience, as is detailed in sections below, is a concept in national and international law,[6] is increasingly conceived of as applying to the world as a whole,[7] has motivated numerous notable acts for the public good[8] and been the subject of many prominent examples of literature, music and film. one reason, she held, was that conscience, as we understand it in moral or legal matters, is supposedly always present within us, just like consciousness: "and this conscience is also supposed to tell us what to do and what to repent; before it became the lumen naturale or kant's practical reason, it was the voice of god.[290] the dream academy song 'forest fire' provided an early warning of the moral dangers of our 'black cloud' 'bringing down a different kind of weather . "wild justice and fair play: animal origins of social morality" (pdf). robert bolt play a man for all seasons focuses on the conscience of catholic lawyer thomas more in his struggle with king henry viii ("the loyal subject is more bounden to be loyal to his conscience than to any other thing").[10] according to adi shankara in his vekachudamani morally right action (characterised as humbly and compassionately performing the primary duty of good to others without expectation of material or spiritual reward), helps "purify the heart" and provide mental tranquility but it alone does not give us "direct perception of the reality"."[30] some contemporary christian churches and religious groups hold the moral teachings of the ten commandments or of jesus as the highest authority in any situation, regardless of the extent to which it involves responsibilities in law. thomas aquinas regarded conscience as the application of moral knowledge to a particular case (s. the neural bases of cognitive conflict and control in moral judgment. obviously, what kuni did would have been inappropriate toward a member of her own species.

The End of History? - Francis Fukuyama

above examples help explain why to the biologist, a russian doll is such a satisfying plaything, especially if it has a historical dimension. moral rules tell us when and how to apply our empathic tendencies, but the tendencies themselves have been in existence since time immemorial., cooperation, emotional intelligence, empathy, evolution, globalization, human nature, human rights, morality, neuroscience, psychology, religion, social connections, trust."[125] einstein often referred to the "inner voice" as a source of both moral and physical knowledge: "quantum mechanics is very impressive.[135] walzer also argued that attempts by courts to define conscience as a merely personal moral code or as sincere belief, risked encouraging an anarchy of moral egotisms, unless such a code and motive was necessarily tempered with shared moral knowledge: derived either from the connection of the individual to a universal spiritual order, or from the common principles and mutual engagements of unselfish people. although fulgentius' conflation with the contemporary african saint fulgentius is now questioned,[10] the mythologiæ explicitly treated its subject matter as allegories requiring interpretation and not as true events. in the first volume, primitive mythology, he clearly outlines his intention:Without straining beyond the treasuries of evidence already on hand in these widely scattered departments of our subject, therefore, but simply gathering from them the membra disjuncta of a unitary mythological science, i attempt in the following pages the first sketch of a natural history of the gods and heroes, such as in its final form should include in its purview all divine beings—as zoology includes all animals and botany all plants—not regarding any as sacrosanct or beyond its scientific domain.[1] lawrence kohlberg considered critical conscience to be an important psychological stage in the proper moral development of humans, associated with the capacity to rationally weigh principles of responsibility, being best encouraged in the very young by linkage with humorous personifications (such as jiminy cricket) and later in adolescents by debates about individually pertinent moral dilemmas.[83] conscience may be defined as the practical reason employed when applying moral convictions to a situation ("critical conscience"). russia, he implies that there will still be a substantial. krom’s case illustrates that without the proper mechanism for understanding and responding to a child’s needs, a species will not survive.'[29] this can sometimes (as with the conflict between william tyndale and thomas more over the translation of the bible into english) lead to moral quandaries: "do i unreservedly obey my church/priest/military/political leader or do i follow my own inner feeling of right and wrong as instructed by prayer and a personal reading of scripture? is the challenge of our time: globalization by a tribal species. awe brain children communication compassion conflict resolution cooperation creativity dacher keltner depression development education emotional intelligence emotions empathy evolution family forgiveness generosity gratitude habits happiness health helping kindness love marriage meaningful life meditation mindfulness money morality neuroscience optimism parenting play politics positive emotions positive psychology prejudice prosocial behavior racism relationships religion resilience self-compassion social connections stress success teachers trust violence well-being work.’s not that religion and culture don’t have a role to play, but the building blocks of morality clearly predate humanity. thus, conscience was considered an act or judgment of practical reason that began with synderesis, the structured development of our innate remnant awareness of absolute good (which he categorised as involving the five primary precepts proposed in his theory of natural law) into an acquired habit of applying moral principles. the last several decades, we’ve seen increasing evidence of empathy in other species.[257] the french author montaigne (1533–1592) in one of the most celebrated of his essays ("on experience") expressed the benefits of living with a clear conscience: "our duty is to compose our character, not to compose books, to win not battles and provinces, but order and tranquillity in our conduct. the intellectual adventure of ancient man: an essay of speculative thought in the ancient near east.

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Conscience - Wikipedia

Mythology - Wikipedia

[111] locke highlighted the metaethics problem of whether accepting a statement like "follow your conscience" supports subjectivist or objectivist conceptions of conscience as a guide in concrete morality, or as a spontaneous revelation of eternal and immutable principles to the individual: "if conscience be a proof of innate principles, contraries may be innate principles; since some men with the same bent of conscience prosecute what others avoid. more precisely, mythic discourse deals in master categories that have multiple referents: levels of the cosmos, terrestrial geographies, plant and animal species, logical categories, and the like. the last several decades, we’ve seen increasing evidence of empathy in other species. defines mythology as "a subjective truth of people that is communicated through stories, symbols and rituals"., how and why would this trait have evolved in humans and other species? hamlet's mill: an essay on myth and the frame of time. hannah arendt pointed out, however, (following the utilitarian john stuart mill on this point): a bad conscience does not necessarily signify a bad character; in fact only those who affirm a commitment to applying moral standards will be troubled with remorse, guilt or shame by a bad conscience and their need to regain integrity and wholeness of the self.’s not that religion and culture don’t have a role to play, but the building blocks of morality clearly predate humanity. a culture's collective mythology helps convey belonging, shared and religious experiences, behavioral models and moral and practical lessons. obviously, what kuni did would have been inappropriate toward a member of her own species. between a part that was historical and a part that was.[49] conscience for bonhoeffer did not, like shame, embrace or pass judgment on the morality of the whole of its owner's life; it reacted only to certain definite actions: "it recalls what is long past and represents this disunion as something which is already accomplished and irreparable".[160] a more recent case concerned kimberly rivera, a private in the us army and mother of four children who, having served 3 months in iraq war decided the conflict was immoral and sought refugee status in canada in 2012 (see list of iraq war resisters), but was deported and arrested in the us. lévy-bruhl claimed "the primitive mentality is a condition of the human mind, and not a stage in its historical development. mythological archetypes, such as the cautionary tale regarding the abuse of technology, battles between gods and creation stories, are often the subject of major film productions.[100] nevertheless, hegel thought that a functioning state would always be tempted not to recognize conscience in its form of subjective knowledge, just as similar non-objective opinions are generally rejected in science.[88] the medieval islamic philosopher avicenna, whilst imprisoned in the castle of fardajan near hamadhan, wrote his famous isolated-but-awake "floating man" sensory deprivation thought experiment to explore the ideas of human self-awareness and the substantiality of the soul; his hypothesis being that it is through intelligence, particularly the active intellect, that god communicates truth to the human mind or conscience."[8] winners of the award have included: malala yousafzai, singer and social justice activist harry belafonte,[293] musician peter gabriel (2008), nelson mandela (2006), the irish rock band u2 (2005), mary robinson and hilda morales trujillo (a guatemalan women's rights activist) (2004) and the author and public intellectual václav havel (2003).. in the post-historical period there will be neither art nor.

The End of History? - Francis Fukuyama

Yesterday and Today Journal May No1 2007

conscience is the universalist idea that with ready global communication, all people on earth will no longer be morally estranged from one another, whether it be culturally, ethnically, or geographically; instead they will conceive ethics from the utopian point of view of the universe, eternity or infinity, rather than have their duties and obligations defined by forces arising solely within the restrictive boundaries of 'blood and territory.[48] conscience tended to be more authoritative in questions of moral judgment, thought butler, because it was more likely to be clear and certain (whereas calculations of self-interest tended to probable and changing conclusions).[2]emmanuel levinas viewed conscience as a revelatory encountering of resistance to our selfish powers, developing morality by calling into question our naive sense of freedom of will to use such powers arbitrarily, or with violence, this process being more severe the more rigorously the goal of our self was to obtain control. second, our species depends on cooperation, which means that we do better if we are surrounded by healthy, capable group mates., how and why would this trait have evolved in humans and other species? anti-realists debate whether the moral facts necessary to activate conscience supervene on natural facts with a posteriori necessity; or arise a priori because moral facts have a primary intension and naturally identical worlds may be presumed morally identical. historical examples of conscientious noncompliance in a different professional context included the manipulation of the visa process in 1939 by japanese consul-general chiune sugihara in kaunas (the temporary capital of lithuania between germany and the soviet union) and by raoul wallenberg in hungary 1n 1944[181] to allow jews to escape almost certain death.[283] here js bach's use of counterpoint and contrapuntal settings, his dynamic discourse of melodically and rhythmically distinct voices seeking forgiveness of sins ("qui tollis peccata mundi, miserere nobis") evokes a spiraling moral conversation of all humanity expressing his belief that "with devotional music, god is always present in his grace". has been a threat to liberalism historically in germany,And continues to be one in isolated parts of "post-historical" europe. our morality depends on it: how could anyone be expected to follow the golden rule without the capacity to mentally trade places with a fellow human being?[12] from lydgate until the seventeenth or eighteenth-century, mythology was similarly used to mean a moral, fable, allegory or a parable. in psychological terms conscience is often described as leading to feelings of remorse when a human commits actions that go against his/her moral values and to feelings of rectitude or integrity when actions conform to such norms., cooperation, emotional intelligence, empathy, evolution, globalization, human nature, human rights, morality, neuroscience, psychology, religion, social connections, trust. above examples help explain why to the biologist, a russian doll is such a satisfying plaything, especially if it has a historical dimension. the mission and historical missions: film and the writing of history. krom’s case illustrates that without the proper mechanism for understanding and responding to a child’s needs, a species will not survive. emotions may lead to subversive acts, such as the case of a prison guard who during wartime was directed to feed his charges only water and bread, but who occasionally sneaked in a hard-boiled egg."[137] edward conze stated it is important for individual and collective moral growth that we recognise the illusion of our conscience being wholly located in our body; indeed both our conscience and wisdom expand when we act in an unselfish way and conversely "repressed compassion results in an unconscious sense of guilt.[91] aquinas also discussed conscience in relation to the virtue of prudence to explain why some people appear to be less "morally enlightened" than others, their weak will being incapable of adequately balancing their own needs with those of others.

The Evolution of Empathy | Greater Good

[119] the man with a conscience, he believed, fights a lonely battle against the "overwhelming forces of inescapable situations" which demand moral decisions despite the likelihood of adverse consequences. theory claims that myths are distorted accounts of historical events.[49][50] according to this theory, storytellers repeatedly elaborate upon historical accounts until the figures in those accounts gain the status of gods. john mandevil's support of ctesias's claims] may still be received in some acceptions of morality, and to a pregnant invention, may afford commendable mythologie; but in a natural and proper exposition, it containeth impossibilities, and things inconsistent with truth. moral judgment may derive from values or norms (principles and rules). continued mythic;—while yet poetry remained the union of the sensuous and the philosophic mind;—the efficient presence of the latter in the synthesis of the two, had manifested itself in the sublime mythus περὶ γενέσεως τοῦ νοῦ ἐν ἀνθρωποῖς concerning the genesis, or birth of the νοῦς or reason in man."[185] conscientious noncompliance may be the only practical option for citizens wishing to affirm the existence of an international moral order or 'core' historical rights (such as the right to life, right to a fair trial and freedom of opinion) in states where non-violent protest or civil disobedience are met with prolonged arbitrary detention, torture, forced disappearance, murder or persecution.[156] john dewey considered that conscientious objectors were often the victims of "moral innocency" and inexpertness in moral training: "the moving force of events is always too much for conscience". the sacred texts of ancient hindu and buddhist philosophy became available in german translations in the 18th and 19th centuries, they influenced philosophers such as schopenhauer to hold that in a healthy mind only deeds oppress our conscience, not wishes and thoughts; "for it is only our deeds that hold us up to the mirror of our will"; the good conscience, thought schopenhauer, we experience after every disinterested deed arises from direct recognition of our own inner being in the phenomenon of another, it affords us the verification "that our true self exists not only in our own person, this particular manifestation, but in everything that lives. views of conscience usually see it as linked to a morality inherent in all humans, to a beneficent universe and/or to divinity.[98] thus, living a life of peaceful conscience means to spinoza that reason is used to generate adequate ideas where the mind increasingly sees the world and its conflicts, our desires and passions sub specie aeternitatis, that is without reference to time. best hope for transcending tribal differences is based on the moral emotions, because emotions defy ideology.^ friedrich nietzsche "the origins of herd morality" in p singer (ed)., historical and literary material may acquire mythological qualities over time.[110] john locke in his essays on the law of nature argued that the widespread fact of human conscience allowed a philosopher to infer the necessary existence of objective moral laws that occasionally might contradict those of the state.[157] conscientious objection (also called conscientious refusal or evasion) to obeying a law, should not arise from unreasoning, naive "traditional conscience", for to do so merely encourages infantile abdication of responsibility to calibrate the law against moral or human rights norms and disrespect for democratic institutions. carr writes of dostoevsky's character the young student raskolnikov in the novel crime and punishment who decides to murder a 'vile and loathsome' old woman money lender on the principle of transcending conventional morals: "the sequel reveals to us not the pangs of a stricken conscience (which a less subtle writer would have given us) but the tragic and fruitless struggle of a powerful intellect to maintain a conviction which is incompatible with the essential nature of man. french philosopher simone de beauvoir in a very easy death (une mort très douce, 1964) reflects within her own conscience about her mother's attempts to develop such a moral sympathy and understanding of others. is hard to imagine that empathy—a characteristic so basic to the human species that it emerges early in life, and is accompanied by strong physiological reactions—came into existence only when our lineage split off from that of the apes.

  • Hegel, Evil, and the End of History | IWM

    [74] when the damage occurs to adults, they may still be able to perform moral reasoning; but when it occurs to children, they may never develop that ability. on the prometheus of æschylus: an essay, preparatory to a series of disquisitions respecting the egyptian, in connection with the sacerdotal, theology, and in contrast with the mysteries of ancient greece. this is why, when speaking of moral role models, we talk of their hearts, not their brains (even if, as any neuroscientist will point out, the heart as the seat of emotions is an outdated notion). this is why, when speaking of moral role models, we talk of their hearts, not their brains (even if, as any neuroscientist will point out, the heart as the seat of emotions is an outdated notion). darwin thought that any animal endowed with well-marked social instincts would inevitably acquire a moral sense or conscience, as its intellectual powers approximated man's.[209] john passmore has argued that mystical considerations about the global expansion of all human consciousness, should take into account that if as a species we do become something much superior to what we are now, it will be as a consequence of conscience not only implanting a goal of moral perfectibility, but assisting us to remain periodically anxious, passionate and discontented, for these are necessary components of care and compassion.[141] scrutton has claimed that true understanding of conscience and its relationship with morality has been hampered by an "impetuous" belief that philosophical questions are solved through the analysis of language in an area where clarity threatens vested interests. among our close animal relatives, it is switched on by events within their community, such as a youngster in distress, but it is just as easily switched off with regards to outsiders or members of other species, such as prey.[148] failure to acknowledge and accept that conscientious judgements can be seriously mistaken, may only promote situations where one's conscience is manipulated by others to provide unwarranted justifications for non-virtuous and selfish acts; indeed, insofar as it is appealed to as glorifying ideological content, and an associated extreme level of devotion, without adequate constraint of external, altruistic, normative justification, conscience may be considered morally blind and dangerous both to the individual concerned and humanity as a whole."[224] vasili arkhipov was a russian naval officer on out-of-radio-contact soviet submarine b-59 being depth-charged by us warships during the cuban missile crisis whose dissent when two other officers decided to launch a nuclear torpedo (unanimous agreement to launch was required) may have averted a nuclear war. and it is just because he has this nobler moral nature in him that we admire and love him".[149] langston argues that philosophers of virtue ethics have unnecessarily neglected conscience for, once conscience is trained so that the principles and rules it applies are those one would want all others to live by, its practise cultivates and sustains the virtues; indeed, amongst people in what each society considers to be the highest state of moral development there is little disagreement about how to act.^ "long before the entire separation of metaphysics from poetry, that is, while yet poesy, in all its several species of verse, music, statuary, &c. as an idea was not universal moral revulsion against it, since. moral rules tell us when and how to apply our empathic tendencies, but the tendencies themselves have been in existence since time immemorial. best hope for transcending tribal differences is based on the moral emotions, because emotions defy ideology.[54] according to freud, the consequence of not obeying our conscience is guilt, which can be a factor in the development of neurosis; freud claimed that both the cultural and individual super-ego set up strict ideal demands with regard to the moral aspects of certain decisions, disobedience to which provokes a 'fear of conscience'. awe brain children communication compassion conflict resolution cooperation creativity dacher keltner depression development education emotional intelligence emotions empathy evolution family forgiveness generosity gratitude habits happiness health helping kindness love marriage meaningful life meditation mindfulness money morality neuroscience optimism parenting play politics positive emotions positive psychology prejudice prosocial behavior racism relationships religion resilience self-compassion social connections stress success teachers trust violence well-being work. by his historical consciousness of it, the material world can.
  • Jürgen Habermas (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

    [131] aj ayer was a more recent realist who held that the existence of conscience was an empirical question to be answered by sociological research into the moral habits of a given person or group of people, and what causes them to have precisely those habits and feelings.[168] but before conscience can conclusively determine what morally should be done, he thought that the state of the question should be thoroughly known. he interpreted myths as accounts of actual historical events - distorted over many retellings. the 1950s, barthes published a series of essays examining modern myths and the process of their creation in his book mythologies. royce (1855–1916) built on the transcendental idealism view of conscience, viewing it as the ideal of life which constitutes our moral personality, our plan of being ourself, of making common sense ethical decisions.[140] it has also been argued that there is a measure of moral luck in how circumstances create the obstacles which conscience must overcome to apply moral principles or human rights and that with the benefit of enforceable property rights and the rule of law, access to universal health care plus the absence of high adult and infant mortality from conditions such as malaria, tuberculosis, hiv/aids and famine, people in relatively prosperous developed countries have been spared pangs of conscience associated with the physical necessity to steal scraps of food, bribe tax inspectors or police officers, and commit murder in guerrilla wars against corrupt government forces or rebel armies. on life and essays on religion (a maude trans) oxford university press. on a substratum of permanent great power interest is a highly. catholic teaching holds that, "man has the right to act according to his conscience and in freedom so as personally to make moral decisions.[276] albert tucker painted man's head to capture the moral disintegration, and lack of conscience, of a man convicted of kicking a dog to death. de spinoza in his ethics, published after his death in 1677, argued that most people, even those that consider themselves to exercise free will, make moral decisions on the basis of imperfect sensory information, inadequate understanding of their mind and will, as well as emotions which are both outcomes of their contingent physical existence and forms of thought defective from being chiefly impelled by self-preservation. ancient epic of the indian subcontinent, the mahabharata of vyasa, contains two pivotal moments of conscience. emotions may lead to subversive acts, such as the case of a prison guard who during wartime was directed to feed his charges only water and bread, but who occasionally sneaked in a hard-boiled egg. the english word implies internal awareness of a moral standard in the mind concerning the quality of one's motives, as well as a consciousness of our own actions. de spinoza: moral problems and our emotional responses to them should be reasoned from the perspective of eternity.[97] the solution, according to spinoza, was to gradually increase the capacity of our reason to change the forms of thought produced by emotions and to fall in love with viewing problems requiring moral decision from the perspective of eternity.[3] common secular or scientific views regard the capacity for conscience as probably genetically determined, with its subject probably learned or imprinted (like language) as part of a culture. information: free will, compatibilism and incompatibilism, determinism, libertarianism (metaphysics), theory of justification, virtue ethics, metaethics, moral motivation, and normative ethics. many sources for myths have been proposed, ranging from personification of nature or personification of natural phenomena, to truthful or hyperbolic accounts of historical events to explanations of existing rituals.
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    • Aldous Huxley - Wikiquote

      "[107] kant considered critical conscience to be an internal court in which our thoughts accuse or excuse one another; he acknowledged that morally mature people do often describe contentment or peace in the soul after following conscience to perform a duty, but argued that for such acts to produce virtue their primary motivation should simply be duty, not expectation of any such bliss.[1] the extent to which conscience informs moral judgment before an action and whether such moral judgments are or should be based in reason has occasioned debate through much of the history of western philosophy. is the challenge of our time: globalization by a tribal species. second, our species depends on cooperation, which means that we do better if we are surrounded by healthy, capable group mates. since it is not the job of science to define human morality, a religious experience is an attempt to connect with a perceived moral past, which is in contrast with the technological present.^ perhaps the most extended passage of philosophic interpretation of myth is to be found in the fifth and sixth essays of proclus’ commentary on the republic (to be found in the works of plato i, trans. approaches often view myths as manifestations of psychological, cultural, or societal truths, rather than as inaccurate historical accounts."[72] charles lineweaver has argued that our "ideas of "good" and "evil", and our consciences that we rely on to help us make moral decisions (like pinnochio’s jiminy cricket), are features of consciousness that have evolved under selection pressure, just like skin color, intestinal ph and fingernail growth rates. rawls in his a theory of justice defines a conscientious objector as an individual prepared to undertake, in public (and often despite widespread condemnation), an action of civil disobedience to a legal rule justifying it (also in public) by reference to contrary foundational social virtues (such as justice as liberty or fairness) and the principles of morality and law derived from them. 1971 appendix iii 'thoughts on man' essay xi 'of self love and benevolence' p. is hard to imagine that empathy—a characteristic so basic to the human species that it emerges early in life, and is accompanied by strong physiological reactions—came into existence only when our lineage split off from that of the apes. a sincere conscience presumes one is diligently seeking moral truth from authentic sources, that is, seeking to conform oneself to that moral truth by listening to the authority established by christ to teach it.[8][9] both terms translated the subject of latin author fulgentius' fifth-century mythologiæ, which was concerned with the explication of greek and roman stories about their gods, commonly referred to as classical mythology. kant, a central figure of the age of enlightenment, likewise claimed that two things filled his mind with ever new and increasing admiration and awe, the oftener and more steadily they were reflected on: "the starry heavens above me and the moral law within me ."[123] arendt believed that people who are unfamiliar with the process of silent critical reflection about what they say and do will not mind contradicting themselves by an immoral act or crime, since they can "count on its being forgotten the next moment;" bad people are not full of regrets. the flight of the wild gander: explorations in the mythological dimension : selected essays, 1944-1968.[170] a notable example of civil resistance or satyagraha ("satya" in sanskrit means "truth and compassion", "agraha" means "firmness of will") involved mahatma gandhi making salt in india when that act was prohibited by a british statute, in order to create moral pressure for law reform.[142] susan sontag similarly argued that it was a symptom of psychological immaturity not to recognise that many morally immature people willingly experience a form of delight, in some an erotic breaking of taboo, when witnessing violence, suffering and pain being inflicted on others. it is the inner place of our relationship with him, who speaks to our heart and helps us to discern, to understand the path we ought to take, and once the decision is made, to move forward, to remain faithful"[35] in terms of logic, conscience can be viewed as the practical conclusion of a moral syllogism whose major premise is an objective norm and whose minor premise is a particular case or situation to which the norm is applied.
    • Aristotle's Psychology (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

      it binds since one has subjective certainty that one is correct.[156] objections to rawls' theory include first, its inability to accommodate conscientious objections to the society's basic appreciation of justice or to emerging moral or ethical principles (such as respect for the rights of the natural environment) which are not yet part of it and second, the difficulty of predictably and consistently determining that a majority decision is just or unjust.[132] george edward moore bridged the idealistic and sociological views of 'critical' and 'traditional' conscience in stating that the idea of abstract 'rightness' and the various degrees of the specific emotion excited by it are what constitute, for many persons, the specifically 'moral sentiment' or conscience. we rely more on what we feel than what we think when solving moral dilemmas. argue on religious or philosophical grounds that it is blameworthy to act against conscience, even if the judgement of conscience is likely to be erroneous (say because it is inadequately informed about the facts, or prevailing moral (humanist or religious), professional ethical, legal and human rights norms). and marc hauser's moral minds, that our sense of right and wrong can be derived from our darwinian past. among our close animal relatives, it is switched on by events within their community, such as a youngster in distress, but it is just as easily switched off with regards to outsiders or members of other species, such as prey. can be at the source of errors in judgment in moral conduct".[158] instead it should be based on "critical conscience' – seriously thought out, conceptually mature, personal moral or religious beliefs held to be fundamentally incompatible (that is, not merely inconsistent on the basis of selfish desires, whim or impulse), for example, either with all laws requiring conscription for military service, or legal compulsion to fight for or financially support the state in a particular war.[49][50] for example the myth of the wind-god aeolus may have evolved from a historical account of a king who taught his people to use sails and interpret the winds. conscience in this sense is not necessarily the product of a process of rational consideration of the moral features of a situation (or the applicable normative principles, rules or laws) and can arise from parental, peer group, religious, state or corporate indoctrination, which may or may not be presently consciously acceptable to the person ("traditional conscience"). ralston saul expressed the view in the unconscious civilization that in contemporary developed nations many people have acquiesced in turning over their sense of right and wrong, their critical conscience, to technical experts; willingly restricting their moral freedom of choice to limited consumer actions ruled by the ideology of the free market, while citizen participation in public affairs is limited to the isolated act of voting and private-interest lobbying turns even elected representatives against the public interest. conscience, according to johnson, was nothing more than a conviction felt by ourselves of something to be done or something to be avoided; in questions of simple unperplexed morality, conscience is very often a guide that may be trusted.[84] in purportedly morally mature mystical people who have developed this capacity through daily contemplation or meditation combined with selfless service to others, critical conscience can be aided by a "spark" of intuitive insight or revelation (called marifa in islamic sufi philosophy and synderesis in medieval christian scholastic moral philosophy). bradley discusses the central problem of shakespeare's tragic character hamlet as one where conscience in the form of moral scruples deters the young prince with his "great anxiety to do right" from obeying his father's hell-bound ghost and murdering the usurping king ("is't not perfect conscience to quit him with this arm? nevertheless, despite one's best effort, "[i]t can happen that moral conscience remains in ignorance and makes erroneous judgments about acts to be performed or already committed . for example, the matter of britain (the legendary history of great britain, especially those focused on king arthur and the knights of the round table) and the matter of france, based on historical events of the fifth and eighth-centuries respectively, were first made into epic poetry and became partly mythological over the following centuries.[256] the second, at the end of the saga, is when king yudhishthira having alone survived the moral tests of life, is offered eternal bliss, only to refuse it because a faithful dog is prevented from coming with him by purported divine rules and laws. darwin considered that conscience evolved in humans to resolve conflicts between competing natural impulses-some about self-preservation but others about safety of a family or community; the claim of conscience to moral authority emerged from the "greater duration of impression of social instincts" in the struggle for survival.

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